Creating major/minor tonality, or the use of certain key centers for a given composition, was a significant change and expansion from earlier musical eras. Twelve major and twelve minor keys were formed, highly evident in J.S. Bach’s exploitation of this concept with The Well-Tempered Clavier. In this work, Bach wrote one keyboard piece in each major and minor key, for a total of 24 keyboard pieces. This change in tonality also brought improvement to the keyboard and the tuning of instruments. With new key schemes, musicians evolved to "Equal-Tempered" tuning. This was the first period in which instrumental music became as important as vocal, resulting in a rearrangement of music for different instruments. String instruments rapidly improved, including the guitar, and the well-known Italian violin maker, Antonio Stradivarius (1644-1737), was brought to the forefront. With modern pianos still many years off, the three most important keyboard instruments of the time included the organ, harpsichord (the common keyboard instrument), and clavichord. Associated with Germany, the organ became most important in the church. Evidence of this instrument’s significance is seen in Bach’s organ fugues and chorale preludes, of which he wrote around 170.

One of the most substantial achievements of the Baroque was the invention of opera, which accurately captured the exciting spirit characteristic of the era. Greek tragedy served as a model for the early operas, and Baroque composers experimented with these new ideas. Most opera librettos were then derived from objects of mythology. These concepts of singing the tragedies were easily applied to a whole drama, or opera. The most famous early composer of opera was Claudio Monteverdi (1567-1643). Later, influential opera composers included Englishman Henry Purcell (1659-1695) who was well known for Dido and Aeneas, and G.F. Handel, who wrote late Italian Baroque opera for England that was popular with the nobility.


Musical Terms

Basso Continuo: An independent bass line that continues throughout a piece and consists of doubling the lowest vocal part. Also known as thoroughbass or figured bass, this line was played by organists in the 17th and 18th centuries.

Canon: Meaning "rule," this word applies to the strictest form of contrapuntal imitation. One melodic voice is imitated by all other voices, note by note, after an interval of time. A canon is "free" if the imitation is not exact, but varies slightly.

Chorale: Congregational song or hymn of the German Protestant Church. Derived from the German term "choral," this style first applied to a unison and unaccompanied performance. In the 17th century, the term grew to include the text and tune together. Associated with Baroque composer J.S. Bach and Reformist Martin Luther.

Chorale Prelude: Derived from playing organ preludes and interludes to the chorale, two types of this composition included a line-by-line melody of counterpoint and a freer form with elaboration of theme. Designed specifically as an introduction to chorale singing.

Concerto: A multimovement work in which an instrument is blended with orchestra or contrasted as a soloist.

Counterpoint: Derived from the expression meaning "note against note," this term is the combination of two or more melodic lines sounding together in a linear sense; the musical ability to hear and understand two lines at once. Beginning in the 9th century, counterpoint reached its height between the 16th and 17th centuries.

Equal Temperament: Adjustment in tuning of musical intervals, or the space between notes, so that pairs of notes are like partners instead of sounding unrelated. The fortepiano and organ are tuned to equal temperament, in which each half-step is made equal. In the 20th century, this temperament of 12-note equal distribution has predominated.

Figured Bass: See Basso Continuo.

Fugue: One type of contrapuntal composition for a certain number of voices, each entering one at a time in imitation of each other. The theme of the first voice is known as the subject, whereas the next voice to enter would be the answer. When all voices have stated their theme, the exposition is complete. Subjects alternate with brief episodes, or short independent sections, throughout the piece.

Oratorio: A sacred musical composition for solo vocalists, chorus, and orchestra. Performed without scenery or costumes and emphasizing narration; secular works also scored for a combination of solo singers, chorus, and orchestra.

Sonata ("to sound"): Instrumental composition in several movements for piano solo or instrumental combinations with piano accompaniment. Originated in the 16th century for any work played and not sung, becoming prevalent during the 17th century.

Tonality: The key of a particular composition, derived from the relationships of tones. Related terms include bitonality (use of two keys at once in a piece of music); polytonality (the use of several keys at one time); and atonality (no key center).