Beginning about 1820, the Romantic period in history continues to affect culture and the fine arts even today. Romanticism became most prominent after about 1825 and was born from the effects of the French Revolution. 1770-1900 generally fuses the two eras (Classic and Romantic) together, with revolutionary composer Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) bridging the musical gap. Romanticism was opposite the Age of Reason, and combined interest in the exotic with unrealized desire and influence of the Middle Ages. It "aimed to broaden all human horizons and encompass the totality of our experience" (Kamien 294). Although this period embraced much more than music, literary figure E.T.A. Hoffmann claimed music to be "the most romantic of all the arts -- one might almost say, the only genuinely romantic one -- for its sole subject is the infinite. Music discloses to man an unknown realm, a world in which he leaves behind all definite feelings to surrender himself to an inexpressible longing" (Machlis & Forney 305).

Style characteristics of Romanticism focus on individuality and humankind, the free expression of emotions, and inexpressible longing as well as feelings of intense yearning and nostalgia. Romanticists were very much interested in the past, as seen in Richard Wagner’s The Ring of the Nibelung, a cycle of dramas based on German medieval myths. Nature was the most important factor for inspiration during the Romantic period and affected all aspects of life. All of the fine arts cultivated emotional expression: the poets Wordsworth, Heine, Byron, and Shelley; and writers Poe, Coleridge, Hugo, and Hawthorne. "Eternal longing, regret for the lost happiness of childhood, an indefinable discontent that gnawed at the soul -- these were the ingredients of the Romantic mood" (Machlis & Forney 308).

Changes that developed during the shift from Classicism to Romanticism altered the progress of society. The Industrial Revolution took place, and the middle class rose to prominence. Tensions mounted in an age of materialism, eventually climaxing in World War I. Opposed to aristocratic patronage of the 18th century, musicians became more independent and were now chiefly supported by the middle class. From an increased interest in music, society created the London Philharmonic Society, the New York Philharmonic, and the Vienna Philharmonic. This era also began music conservatories. Musicians and the middle class viewed one another as colleagues, a process started by Beethoven. Composers also played many roles in this new Romantic society and had supplementary means of income. In addition to writing music, they became active as pianists and critics, as well as in general education.

Music was related to art and literature through emotion, an emphasis seen as a "moral force, a vision of human greatness, and a direct link between the artist’s inner life and the outside world" (Machlis & Forney 312). Poetry connected the two professions. Many Romantic composers wrote lieder, vocal art songs with piano accompaniment. Composers often treated the piano as equal to the voice in importance. Based on German texts, significant poets favored by lied composers included Johann Wolfgang von Goethe and Heinrich Heine. "The texts of the Lied ranged from tender sentiment to dramatic balladry; its favorite themes were love, longing, and the beauty of nature" (Machlis & Forney 316). A group of lieder collected around a central theme is called a song cycle, such as the 20 songs by Franz Schubert (1797-1828) entitled Die schöne Müllerin, based on poetry of Wilhelm Müller. Romantic songs were intended to be performed in someone’s home, but they are now typically heard in the concert hall. Reversing roles, some musicians wrote about music and writers often composed music. In all cases, "the art song met the nineteenth-century need for intimate personal expression" (Machlis & Forney 315).

Romantic period composer Robert Schumann (1810-1856) eventually became well known as both critic and author. With the assistance of others, he founded Die Neue Zeitschrift für Musik (The New Journal for Music) in 1834. The journal was issued twice a week, and he was sole editor between 1834 and 1844. In his critiques, Schumann was among the first to recognize the instrumental works of Frédéric Chopin, German composer of 18th-century style Johannes Brahms (1833-1897), and Franz Schubert (Grout 598).

The development of choral music included the choral symphony -- begun with Beethoven’s Ninth -- as well as advancements in the genres of Mass, Requiem, and oratorio. Romanticism produced both secular and sacred choral pieces, the part-songs being short in length and mostly secular, while oratorios and cantatas are longer and scored for both chorus and orchestra.

"Romantic music reflected the profound changes that were taking place in the nineteenth century at every level of human existence" (Machlis & Forney 309). Style characteristics emphasized much of the same as other disciplines, including emotional expression and unfulfilled longing. Romantic composers utilized a variety of musical styles. Some pushed forward into the future, while others stylistically adhered to past periods. For many composers, music became personalized and, in some cases, autobiographical. In all instances, each composer sought to achieve a personal style, and the view of music became "the inner language of unconscious emotional experience" (Kerman 221).

Typical structural forms, along with instruments and orchestras, grew in size and quality. Instrumental music developed into program music, a genre based on poetic or extramusical subjects that tell a story. "Poets wanted their poetry to be musical, and musicians wanted their music to be poetic" (Kamien 300). Hector Berlioz (1803-1869) with the Symphonie Fantastique, and Franz Liszt (1811-1886) were important figures in program music, as well as Modest Mussorgsky (1839-1881) with Pictures at an Exhibition. Many varieties and branches of program music also developed. The program symphony is an orchestral work divided into movements. The symphonic poem, however, is a composition of one movement with many contrasts (also called a tone poem). Concert overtures (one movement) and incidental music (written for a play) fall into this category as well, and are smaller works that were performed with other musical and nonmusical events. Because compositions were developed on a larger scale than in past eras, composers tended to write fewer symphonies. Schubert's Symphony No. 8 in B minor ("Unfinished") is often regarded as the first truly Romantic symphony (Grout 568).

Another element of the Romantic era is nationalism in music, making use of symbolism, history, folk songs and themes from one’s own country, and exotic elements. "All over Europe, people were becoming more conscious of their history and destiny, their national character, and their artistic heritage" (Kerman 27). Composers strove to achieve musical independence in Italy, Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Norway. Antonín Dvorák (1841-1904) wrote Slavonic Dances. Russian Ballet came to prominence with Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky (1840-1893). The most important group of promoters for nationalism was "The Mighty Five" from the Russian national school (Alexander Borodin, Modest Musorgsky, Mily Balakirev, César Cui, and Nikolay Rimsky-Korsakov). A native of Poland, Frédéric Chopin (1810-1849) composed native dance music in the form of the polonaise and mazurka.

Combining music and literature, novels as well as political and historical subjects served as a foundation for operatic storylines. Composers were concerned with the extramusical meanings of operas. Romantic opera reflected national styles in France, Germany, and Italy, where opera in this era was first centered. In Paris, there was grand opera, based on historical storylines and created for nonroyalty. Opéra comique is opera on a smaller scale with spoken dialogue, and lyric opera is a combination of the first two. This type is characteristically melodic and uses Romantic subjects as themes. In Germany, an early form of opera is the airy Singspiel. Richard Wagner (1813-1883) became the greatest composer of German opera, inventing music drama that linked these two disciplines. With this development, "the function of music was to serve the ends of dramatic expression" (Grout 641). Italy remained attached to earlier styles, but Giuseppe Verdi (1813-1901) introduced a new national style.

Other elements of musical style include singing melodies; prominent dissonance, or the clashing of tones together; and effective harmonies. Harmony was expanded to include chromatic tones, notes outside the given key of a composition. Harmony "could contribute potently to those mysterious, ethereal, rapturous, or sultry moods that were so greatly enjoyed at the time" (Kerman 223). With melody, composers made their tunes intimate, passionate, and dreamy, runnning a gamut of emotions. Romanticism also introduced a great variety of dynamic levels and variance in tempo and register, with much more contrast than in previous eras. Rhythm was to be free, flowing, and expressive, often speeding up and slowing down again. Compositions also developed into longer movements, typically linking the different sections together with repeating ideas and themes for unity.

Society improved musical instruments, and new ones developed (saxophone, tuba) that placed more demands on performers expected to create a larger sound. The piano was perhaps the most important instrument to Romanticism. Each piano was individually designed for different specifications; some focused on clarity of tone, while others emphasized dramatic effect. Many different genres exploiting the 19th-century piano include waltzes, mazurkas, polonaises, preludes, and intermezzi, and encouraged "the popularity of the Romantic art song [that] was furthered by the emergence of the piano as the universal household instrument" (Machlis & Forney 316). Solo recitals rose in number along with the use of the piano in performance at home. Most composers also performed as concert pianists. They premiered and played their own works, but the Romantic era also produced many virtuoso pianists. Franz Liszt was the most highly regarded for his grandiose pianistic displays, virtuoso effects, and dramatic use of the instrument’s resources.

.: Musical Terms

Cantata: A short oratorio with either a sacred or secular subject, performed by either solo singers or chorus and orchestra.

Chromatic: Refers to notes not in the defined scale; not diatonic, or outside the key scheme; scale comprised of half-steps and including all twelve pitches of an octave.

Concert Overture: Orchestral composition that opens an opera, oratorio, or play.

Dissonance: A chord that sounds restless and unstable, usually resolved to justify the sound for the listening ear. Opposite consonance.

Dynamics: The different levels of volume in music, such as piano and forte.

Grand Opera: An epic or historical work in four to five acts, performed with a large orchestra; a work to be performed at the Paris Opéra; a composition using dramatic musical resources.

Incidental Music: Music written to accompany, or in connection with, a play. May be vocal or instrumental music, performed at the beginning, in-between acts, or as background music.

Intermezzo (Character Piece): "In the middle." An interlude of a short orchestral composition inserted into an opera; a short, small-scale, and independent piano piece with a light character.

Lieder ("songs"): Sing. Lied. German solo vocal composition with piano accompaniment, using a poem as its text.

Lyric Opera: A combination of all opera types.

Mazurka: Traditional Polish dance in triple time, with characteristic dotted rhythms and an accent on the second beat. Geared toward the aristocracy.

Music Drama: "Gesamtkunstwerk." A unified and dramatic work of art, combining all art forms. Developed by Romantic composer Richard Wagner.

Opéra Comique: French comic opera containing light-hearted subjects and spoken dialogue. Used serious or tragic events for storyline in the 19th century.

Oratorio: A sacred musical composition for solo vocalists, chorus, and orchestra. Performed without scenery or costumes and emphasizing narration; secular works also scored for a combination of solo singers, chorus, and orchestra.

Part-Song: An unaccompanied secular song written for several vocal parts, or male, female, or mixed chorus.

Polonaise: National Polish dance or ceremonial procession in triple meter and moderate tempo; an instrumental piece, originally used to accompany the Polish dance.

Prelude: A short piece written for the keyboard instrument, often played in an improvisatory style.

Program Music: Instrumental composition depicting nonmusical ideas, concerning literary ideas, or telling a story.

Singspiel: German song-play, or a type of opera with spoken dialogue, using a comic or light subject.

Song Cycle: Set of songs grouped together in a certain order according to a unified theme. Associated with the 19th-century German lied.

Tempo: The speed at which a musical composition is performed.

Tone Poem (Symphonic Poem): Orchestral work with one movement and music that is accompanied by a poetic and narrative text.

Waltz: Dance in 3/4 time, becoming popular toward the end of the 18th century.

.: Suggested Listening

Franz Schubert: Symphony No. 8 in B minor, D. 759, Unfinished

Frédéric Chopin: Polonaise No. 6 in A-flat Major, Op. 53, Heroic

Robert Schumann: Papillons, Op. 2

Franz Liszt: Transcendental Etude No. 8, Wild Hunt

Johannes Brahms: Piano Quintet in F minor, Op. 34

Richard Wagner: The Ride of the Valkyries from the opera, Die Walküre

Giuseppe Verdi: Un die felice from Act I of the opera, La Traviata